A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide is a damning indictment of the Western-dominated global order a “rules-based system” in which “the rules” are selectively applied. The Rwandan genocide was not an inevitable outcome of ancient ethnic hatreds, but a consequence of colonialism, imperialism, and neoliberalism, writes Thomas Kenny
The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi claimed the lives of one million people. In the face of indisputable evidence of ongoing massacres, the governments on the UN Security Council failed to intervene.
Linda Melvern’s A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide is a masterpiece of investigative journalism: a powerful and harrowing work which begins by tracing the historical legacies of imperialism and colonialism that created conditions in which scores of civilians could be mobilised to commit mass murder, before providing a day by day account of the killings and – with a few heroic exceptions – the indifference of the international community to the fate of the Tutsi.
Prior to German and later Belgian colonization, Rwandan society was hierarchical but not ethnically polarized in the modern sense. The terms “Hutu” and “Tutsi” referred to social categories based on cattle ownership and socioeconomic status rather than immutable ethnic identities. However, European colonists, driven by the pseudo-scientific racial theories of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, imposed a racialized lens onto Rwanda’s social structure.
The Belgians, in particular, institutionalized the division by introducing identity cards that designated people as Hutu or Tutsi. They saw the Tutsi minority as racially superior due to their supposed “Hamitic” origins (a racist theory that African civilizations were created by lighter-skinned invaders) and elevated them to positions of power. This laid the groundwork for decades of inter-ethnic tension, which was exacerbated by the Belgians’ preferential treatment of Tutsis in education and politics. The seeds of hatred that would explode in 1994 were sown in this period, with the colonial administration acting as a catalyst for division and violence.
Notwithstanding the deep-seated roots of the conflict, Melvern identifies how events leading up to and during the genocide were shaped by the former colonial powers pursuit of their own narrow geopolitical interests. She makes a compelling argument that the Rwandan genocide was not an isolated atrocity carried out by a rogue state, but a catastrophe enabled by the political, economic, and military decisions of Western powers, particularly France and the United States, as well as the failures of international institutions like the United Nations.
Few emerge with any credit. France’s involvement was especially shameful. Under the guise of protecting Francophone Africa from Anglo-Saxon influence, France provided military support and training to the Hutu government, even as it became clear that the regime was preparing for mass extermination. French arms shipments continued almost up to the eve of the genocide, and French troops, as part of “Opération Turquoise,” facilitated the escape of genocidaires once the scale of the violence became undeniable. This military intervention was not a neutral peacekeeping effort but an imperial maneuver designed to maintain France’s sphere of influence in Africa.
The United States, under the Clinton administration, also bears responsibility following its calculated refusal to intervene. The US government, still reeling from the failed military intervention in Somalia, was reluctant to commit forces or resources to Rwanda, a small African nation perceived to be of no strategic value. By choosing not to classify the killings as “genocide”, US politicians and officials hoped cynically to avoid triggering international legal obligations under the UN’s Genocide Convention. In consequence the slaughter was allowed to continue unabated.
The United Nations, hamstrung by the political maneuvering of its most powerful member states, failed to act decisively when early warnings of the genocide were raised. As Melvern recounts, General Roméo Dallaire, the head of the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), desperately pleaded for more troops and a stronger mandate to prevent the impending massacre, but his calls were ignored. The UN’s bureaucratic paralysis was not just a matter of inefficiency; it was a reflection of the unequal power structures that govern international relations. The global order, dominated by Western imperialist powers, did not deem Rwanda worthy of meaningful intervention.
In addition to the geopolitical and military failures of Western nations, A People Betrayed highlights the economic forces that contributed to the collapse of Rwandan society. The neoliberal policies promoted by international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank played a significant role in exacerbating the conditions that led to genocide. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Rwanda, like many African nations, was subjected to a series of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) that demanded the liberalization of the economy, the reduction of public spending, and the privatization of state-owned enterprises.
These policies had a devastating impact on Rwanda’s already fragile economy. The reduction of government services led to widespread unemployment and poverty, especially in rural areas where the majority of the population lived. The erosion of the state’s capacity to provide for its citizens created fertile ground for extremist ideologies that scapegoated the Tutsi minority for the country’s economic woes. The Hutu Power movement, which orchestrated the genocide, was able to exploit the economic grievances of ordinary Rwandans, channeling their anger into racial hatred.
Melvern’s analysis of the role of neoliberalism in Rwanda’s descent into violence echoes the broader left-wing critique of global capitalism. The imposition of market-driven reforms on the Global South by Western institutions is not just a form of economic domination; it also undermines the sovereignty of nations and contributes to political instability. In the case of Rwanda, the neoliberal agenda exacerbated the pre-existing divisions sown by colonialism and paved the way for genocide.
In the aftermath of the genocide, the international community’s response has been marked by selective justice and a lack of accountability for the key actors who enabled the violence. While the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was established to prosecute those responsible for the genocide, its focus has been limited to low-level perpetrators and a handful of political and military leaders. Meanwhile, the Western governments that supported the genocidal regime, either through direct military assistance or by turning a blind eye to the warning signs, have faced no meaningful repercussions.
Melvern is particularly critical of the way the French government has evaded responsibility for its role in the genocide. Despite overwhelming evidence of France’s complicity, there has been little in the way of official acknowledgment or reparations. This lack of accountability speaks to the enduring legacy of imperialism in Africa, where former colonial powers continue to exert influence over the continent with impunity.
Furthermore, the international community’s response to the genocide has been characterized by a narrative of humanitarian intervention that conveniently ignores the structural causes of the violence. In the years following the genocide, Rwanda has been held up as a case study in the need for international intervention to prevent mass atrocities. Yet this narrative obscures the fact that the same Western powers advocating for intervention today were those who contributed to the conditions that made genocide possible in the first place.
A People Betrayed is a damning indictment of the Western-dominated global order a “rules-based system” in which “the rules” are selectively applied. The Rwandan genocide was not an inevitable outcome of ancient ethnic hatreds, but a consequence of colonialism, imperialism, and neoliberalism. The international community’s failure to prevent the genocide was not a simple oversight, but a reflection of the deep-seated inequalities that structure global politics.
In the years since the genocide, the rhetoric of “never again” has been repeated ad nauseam, yet the same structural forces that enabled the violence in Rwanda remain intact. The lessons of A People Betrayed are clear: if we are to prevent future genocides, we must not only intervene in moments of crisis but also address the underlying economic and political systems that perpetuate inequality and violence on a global scale.
Melvern is unsparing in recounting the killings in grisly detail. While her tone is one of historical record rather than “true crime” salaciousness, the book is unavoidably an upsetting read. She also provides a lucid account of goings on at the United Nations, including the Security Council, and within the US and French administrations. The book is well-evidenced, with 50 pages of footnotes and a further 12 pages that list sources.
Melvern’s work is a call to action for those on the left who seek to challenge imperialism, dismantle neoliberalism, and build a more just and equitable world. It is not enough to mourn the victims of genocide; we must also confront the systems of power that allowed it to happen and continue to perpetuate violence across the globe.
A People Betrayed – The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide by Linda Melvern is published by Bloomsbury.
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